Prostitution As A High Risk Group For Sexual Services

According to Serughetti (2013), â€Å"In the last decades of the twentieth century, a major change has occurred in the public understanding of prostitution, with the focus shifting from the sex worker to the client.† On the social scientific side, studies on clients have growingly shed light on motivations and behaviors of men who buy sex. Prostitution involves the exchange of sexual services for economic compensation. Women Prostitution involved in prostitution constitute a high-risk group for contracting and transmitting STDs, including HIV. Defending sex work or prostitution is not very easy. Prostitution and sex work have more than one meaning in the U.S. For example, â€Å"some state penal codes define it as the act of hiring out one’s body for sexual intercourse, whereas other states define it as sexual intercourse in exchange for money or as any sexual behaviors that is sold for profit† (Carroll,2013). Our book defines sex work as the exchange of money for sexual services. So, that include a wild range of sexual behavior risks. Sex works can be female, male, or transgender. Sex corkers are hidden most of the time because sex work is illegal in the U.S except for certain counties in Nevada, so it’s very difficult to measure them. According to Carroll (2013), â€Å"Some sociologists suggest that sex work developed out of the patriarchal nature of most society. In a society in which men are valued over women and men hold the reins of economics and political power, some women exploitShow MoreRelatedProstitution : The Oldest Profession On Earth1107 Words   |  5 PagesProstitution Prostitution is considered as the oldest profession on Earth. Sexual service in return for payment is called the prostitution. Prostitution is a big issue effecting women, men, and children all over the world. This is a world-wide controversy and it is something that people are not comfortable talking about. The question is whether people who are involved in the sex industry are willingly or are forced to do it. Our society has different points of view on this issue. Some people agreeRead MoreProstitution Is The Practice Of Engaging And Sexual Activities With Someone For Payment Essay947 Words   |  4 PagesProstitution is the practice of engaging in sexual activities with someone for payment. Although female workers are more prevalent in this profession there are male that make up a small portion of those who perform this trade. Male sex works are often underrepresented in studies. Male prostitutes are categorized in four groups each of which different motivations for sex work ha ve. Male prostitution is following the trend of female prostitution and increasingly moving online. Much like their femaleRead MoreProstitution : The Oldest Profession On Earth1352 Words   |  6 PagesProstitution is considered as the oldest profession on Earth. Sexual service in return for payment is called prostitution. Prostitution is a big issue effecting women, men, and children all over the world. This is a world-wide controversy and it is something that people are not comfortable talking about. The question is whether people who are involved in the sex industry are willing or are forced to do it. Our society has different points of view on this issue. Some people agree and want to legalizeRead MoreProstitution Article On Prostitution Laws1640 Words   |  7 Pages Prostitution Laws in Canada Karlene Wright November 19, 2014 Prostitution Laws in Canada Introduction Prostitution is considered by many to be the oldest profession. Throughout civilization many society have had to address the issue of prostitution. Canada is a nation renown for promoting the advancement of women in all parts of the world. However, it is a nation guilty of punishing women for the circumstances in which they find themselves. The prostitution laws in Canada showsRead MoreProstitution : A Matter Of Numbers1107 Words   |  5 PagesLegalising prostitution: a matter of numbers Prostitution is commonly referred to as the oldest profession of the world, and this is far from true if we consider the definition of prostitution. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, â€Å"Prostitution is the practice of engaging in relatively indiscriminate sexual activity in exchange for immediate payment in money or other valuables† (prostitution in Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online, 2015). There is little evidence of humans selling sex for payment inRead MoreIs Cuba The Oldest Profession?991 Words   |  4 Pagesof the high levels of prostitution found in the Island. Most people will agree with the fact that prostitution is found in every country and in every culture around the world. Prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession. In Cuba prostitutes are called Jineteras referring to the females and Jineteros referring to the male. â€Å"The word â€Å"jinetera† is derived from the Spanish noun â€Å"jinete† (â€Å"horse rider†) and re fers to a group of uncommonly well-dressed women who offer sexual services in exchangeRead MoreIs Male Prostitution A Symptom Of World War II?1325 Words   |  6 PagesIs male prostitution a symptom of World War II? Conceptions of sexuality during the 1940s and 1950s attracted attention to male prostitution. Research indicated that male prostitution was linked to the development of sexual identity. Thus, researchers helped to animate male prostitution as socially problematic. This unique problematization of male prostitution led people to believe that male prostitutes were homosexuals, a ghettoized sexual identity which contradicted normative standards of masculinityRead MoreThe Harmful Effects of Juvenile Prostitution Essay1749 Words   |  7 PagesJuvenile prostitution is a great problem and not many people are aware of it. In some cases juvenile prostitution start as a voluntary act but in other cases there are grills ho are being kidnap just with the purpose of selling them fo r sex. I personally pick to inform you about juvenile prostitution because I am interested in making a difference in our teenager’s world I want them to walk freely on the street. I am tired of seeing how people take advantage of inoffensive and inexperience teenagersRead MoreProstitution And Its Effect On Society1648 Words   |  7 PagesProstitution, the practice of exchanging sexual acts for payment, is referred to as â€Å"most ancient profession in the world (Kipling, R. 1898) this practice is evident in every corner of the world, and dates back to before the invention of time. Despite its universality, the way that prostitution is perceived and dealt with differs drastically from culture to culture. While it is legal in some countries, it is considered punishable by death in others. In the United States those that perform and purchaseRead MoreDomestic Human Sex Trafficking in the United States1300 Words   |  6 Pagescategory, Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking also re ferred to as DMST, (Kotrla,K. 2010) is the most common form of modern day slavery. In the United States there are an estimated 293,000 youth who fall under high risk factor or DMST (Walker-Rodriguez, A. Hill, R. 2011). Many men prey on the at risk youth to make a fortune for themselves. DMST exposes the youth to a life filled with violence, abuse that is both mental and physical as well as a isolation. The Victims of the Trafficking and Violence Protection

Personal Narrative My Best Friend - 1033 Words

The moonlight shone through the crooked blinds of his dorm room. It reflected on the side of his face as he slept somewhat peacefully next to me. I laid next to him cuddling into his side shaking from the cold. We d been outside for over an hour, in barely any clothes. My face edged with tear streaks and bags under my eyes. I had mascara smudged across my right cheek and my makeup was running. At one point, I turned over and glanced up at him. I studied his face and thought to myself. This was my best friend. We used to hang out after school at my house and watch movies until late. How had things changed so suddenly? I thought of all the good moments we d had. I remembered every crease in his face, every segment of his skin, and the way†¦show more content†¦He wasn’t just a part of me, he was the greatest influence to my life. He was someone special that I would cherish for the rest of my life. He showed me what true love is and for that I d never let him go. I walked around campus completely blank and spaced out. There was a void in my heart that only he could fix. We d gone the whole day ignoring each other completely. I had decided to go to the lounge to relax with some friends and he was in there. He didn’t look at me but got up and took his belongings and left. It hurt to see him walk away but I knew he wouldn’t want to be around me after I told him I never wanted to speak to him again. Truth is, since we ve met each other we hadn t gone more than a day without speaking. Our friends were encouraging him to come back out to the lounge and hang with us. Someone I don’t like or associate myself with is out there so I rather not come, was the message he d sent her. I d seen the message on her laptop and boiled over with rage. How dare he try to act like I did something to him! Our whole relationship was a struggle for who was wrong and right in all of our arguments. Somehow, he managed to turn the argument we had the night before into my doing and I wasn t having it. I had gotten up and run into my friend s dorm room. He was in there laying on one of the beds with his head in the pillow. I threw open the door. The door smacked against the wallShow MoreRelatedPersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1210 Words   |  5 PagesSunday, my friends and I were eating a meal of thick stew and crusty bread and drinking a pitcher of hot, spiced, and very watered-down wine. We’d chosen my room because it was the biggest and therefore had the most space for practicing weaponry, our afternoon plan. My friends ate and made small talk. We saw each other most days so sometimes it seemed like we ran out of real things to talk about. I was somewhat lost in my thoughts, about us and about our futures. Koilin was my best friend. He wasRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1052 Words   |  5 PagesI Threw my books on the bed and approached the jacket slowly, as if it were Andrew Garfield who would become my best friend. I couldn t look away, I wanted to scream. The jacket would be my new best friend. The leather black and silver studs, the belts, and best of all being popular. This jacket is no ordinary jacket, this is my jacket. I heard steps coming up stairs, my mom stopped by and asked if I like it. I yelled yes with excitement and joy. She left, I stared at the jacket like whenRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1080 Words   |  5 Pageswent downstairs to get my older brother so we could finish the vlog, but Caleb laid on the couch unresponsive. As I called his name while walking down the stairs, I realized something was wrong. â€Å"Caleb† I yelled tears pouring out of my eyes as I found him, not breathing. He was dead. My best friend, my brother, the only person who made me really happy, was gone forever. I couldn t imagine what I was going to do without him. I loved him more than anyone in my life he was my hero. It s octoberRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend757 Words   |  4 PagesI’m Wendy. And no, I look nothing like the perfect happy smiling girl that you all associate with the restaurant. I am 5’6’’ and 13 years old. I have wavy, short, caramel hair and brown eyes, with a light spattering of freckles. My favorite colors are blue and gray, but yellow is such a pretty sunny color... it just doesn t look good on me. I go to North-West Independence Middle School. In case you were wondering, that is in middle of nowhere Nebraska. It is like a scene from an old movie, no colorRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend940 Words   |  4 Pages Looking back, I remind myself that friends are temporary, but memories are forever. This was going to be our last night together, Cesli and I. Cesli Crum was my best friend that I met in third grade. That year came and went, and though in fourth grade Cesli was held back, we still vowed to always be best friends. Then, that winter of two thousand fourteen, her family decided to move away. I felt devastated, so my mom agreed to have Cesli over one evening right before she left. Thus that is whatRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1369 Words   |  6 Pagesreason my palms were sweaty and I had butterflies doing loopty-loops in my stomach. I was on my way to visit Julia, one of my best friends at the time. The whole way there, in bumper to bumper traffic, I reflected on all of my memories with her, including playing on a fallen, rotten tree and pretending that it was milk chocolate shop. As little girls, we would dress up in glittery, razzled costumes and sing our hearts out, which continued well into our teen years when she drove me to school my freshmanRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1034 Words   |  5 Pagesbeen my best friend since I was deported to this horrid tent city. My spouse and daughter died in the floods of Grimsdon. Every thought of them, cripples me with grief instantly, my heart and soul ached for my precious daughter and partner bring me to tears. Thankfully, I met . Ella, who, whilst she could never replace my biological Family, I feel she is now like a much-loved sister to me. She is the only light when there is so much darkness, surrounding us. Suddenly, out of the corner of my eyeRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1327 Words   |  6 Pagesabout it.   She was my absolute best friend and I could not imagine living 1,300 miles away.    Growing up, we were resentful of each other.   We used words and actions to get our point across.   Not only did we slap each other, but also kicked and punched.   I cried even if it didn’t hurt, that was me being a baby.   My dad would scoop me in his arms and at the same time, discipline my sister.   It was satisfying if you had asked my 8 year old self.    Later on, Madison turned into my soul mate, as I beganRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1192 Words   |  5 PagesWe have been best friends since elementary school and gone through a lot together, but we backed each other when it meant the most. While I waited for my flight at Regan International, I called Elizabeth and invited her to my place for a late dinner. I missed her and looked forward to spend time with her. *** As 8 o’clock grew near, my excitement to spend a girl s-night-in with Liz increased. So much has developed since we last chat. Therefore, when I heard the knock on my front door, IRead MorePersonal Narrative : My Best Friend1004 Words   |  5 Pageswhere you think your life is ruined for good? My best friend Peggy and I experienced that feeling one boring night last summer when we were home alone. Last year I was know for â€Å"trouble†, I liked to fight and be the center of attention. I always had to make a scene about everything. Even though I was constantly in trouble with my parents, I never did anything that would put me in jail for a long time if I were to get caught by the police. My best friend was the same way. We both had negative attitudes

Physical Activity Opportunities for Collaboration

Question: Discuss about the Physical Activity Opportunities for Collaboration. Answer: Inroduction: The review of previous studies suggests that for children, it is required that they need to do regular physical activity which is beneficial for the social, physical and mental health of children and adolescents. Besides this, nowadays, children and adolescents prefer passive transport in place of active transport which is in the form of walking and cycling. This resulted in declining in the physical activity in children and adolescents (Carson, et al. 2010). Nowadays, children do not indulge in any physical activity as they do not prefer to reach school by cycling or walking which results in reduced and variable physical activity among children. Nowadays, there is a large distance exists between school and home which has also resulted in the change in the preference of using active transport to passive transport. The children who uses cycling or walking to the school has gained more physical activity if they live farther from the school. It is also reviewed from the past studies that distance from school also affects the sedentary behavior in children. The main aim of the research is top predict the physical activity related to active transport in children and adolescents by the use of distance between home and school by the way of regression model. Besides this, the other purpose of the article is to evaluate the nature of the relationship between commuting distance and active transport. Research Methods For the purpose of carrying out the research, a sample of 8 primary, 3 secondary and 2 intermediate schools were selected from Auckland. In addition to this, for commuting purpose a public bus service is provided in Auckland where the schools are located (Sallis, et al. 2004). Along with this, intermediate and secondary schools provide school buses to commute for children. Besides this, 2000 children were selected from the schools aged 1 to 11 years by the use of stratified random sampling technique. The consent of children has been taken in written for the purpose of participating in the research study carried out related to the research topic. In addition to this, the host institutions have provided ethical approval by the ethics committee. For the purpose of measurement of the physical activity, pedometers are used. In this research study, YAMAX CW 700 is used which uses same internal mechanisms as YAMAX SW 200. YAMAX SW 200 is considered as the reliable and accurate pedometer available for measuring the physical activity carried out by children and adolescents (Corti Donovan, 2002). Pedometers are checked before its use for the purpose of finding defects by the use of 100 step walking test which is repeated 5 times. An error in the pedometers did not exceed 2%. The researcher has asked the participants to wear pedometer for 7 consecutive days except while sleeping and swimming. The physical activity is measured for only 5 days out of 7 days as pedometers were not available to the participants on the first day and the last day. In addition to this, review of the previous research studies provides that the data of 4-5 days is sufficient to obtain a reliable measure of the physical activity. Besides this, researcher has excluded data of a day in which pedometer is removed for longer than 1 hour. In addition to this, the participants were considered outliners if the daily step count is lower than 1000 or greater than 30000 and removed from subsequent analysis. In addition to this, if the data of 1 weekend and weekday is lost then the participants were excluded from the study. In addition to this, the method used to collect the data and information is observation and survey through questionnaire method (Duncan, Duncan Scholfield, 2008). These methods facilitates in gathering large amount of information pertaining to the research work in less time. In this research study, information related to home addresses and usual transport mode used by the children to and from school is gathered by the use of survey through questionnaire method. The questionnaires were filled by the parents for the children aged 1 to 11 years. The participants whio have used multiple transport mode were assigned to a single mode based on the priority criteria. The information related to the distance between the school and home is gathered by the use of Network Analyst Extension in ArcGIS 10.1 and the database of Land Information New Zealand. In addition to this, for the analysis of the information gathered by the use of observation and survey through questionnaire method, researcher has used different methods to get valid and reliable results such as descriptive statistics, chi- square tests, Mann Whitney U tests (Cooper, et al. 2003). The researcher has also stratified the distance between home and school into 9 discrete groups. In this research study, the author has used exploratory research design which facilitates in gaining insights into different aspects of the research topic. This is a quantitative research as it facilitates in providing information in numerical terms to the users of the information to make appropriate decisions. The researcher has adopted has adopted suitable research design for the purpose of gaining valid and reliable results (Rissel, et al. 2012). The exploratory design is appropriate to analyze the aim and objectives of the research study. It facilitates in exploring the information related to the research topic. There is a use of primary data collection methods which helps in provision of the information related to the current scenario of the problem which in turn facilitates in taking appropriate decisions related to the research problem. The exploratory research design does not facil itate in providing conclusions to the research topic. It facilitates in carrying out the descriptive research which provides the outcomes of the research topic in a conclusive manner (Badland Schofield, 2005). The researcher has used appropriate data collection methods as it facilitates in gathering the specific information needed to carry out the research in a proper manner. In addition to this, stratified sampling technique facilitates in reducing sample selection bias and helps in minimizing the over and under representation of some of the segments of the population. In the stratified random sampling technique, a sample population is divided into different segments and then the sample is selected on the random basis. This helps in selection of the appropriate sample required for the study. Out of the selected sample, valid and reliable information is collected from 595 participants which include children ranging from 5 years to 16 years. The main reason behind obtaining of the information from these children is that there is no interference of parents in providing accurate information to the researcher. The results of the study indicate that the boys have relatively more number of steps during weekdays and weekends in comparison to girls (Grow, et al.2008). It also indicates that there are no other significant difference between girls and boys. Besides this, the results also indicates that the children who uses active transport such as cycling and walking has more number of steps during weekdays in comparison to weekend days. This is because on weekdays they go to school by the use of active transportation modes. Besides this, it is also found that the children who uses active transport has accumulated more number of steps in comparison to those who uses passive transport to go to school. The results of the study also indicates that there is an increased use of the passive transport by children as there is an increased distance between their homes and schools (Pate, et al. 2006). In addition to this, it is also observed that there is an increase in the use of active transport by the children of secondary school in comparison to children of primary school. Children that have their schools 1 to 2 km from their home uses active transport for commuting to and from schools. Other factors such as age and sex has no significant impact on the distances between school and home. It is found that as the distance increases the use of active transport decreases. Besides this, the daily physical activity increases in those children who uses active transport. There is a high probability of the use of active transport in a case when there is an existence of short distances between the school and home. The researcher has used appropriate methods for the purpose of analyzing the results of the research study (Carver, et al. 2011). The researcher states that there is a prevalence of mental health problems in many children globally. There is about 22% of children in preschool and school aged children who suffer from mental health problems. In addition to this, only some children seek professional help for the cure of the mental health problems. The main aim of the research study is to investigate parents help seeking processes for young children that have mental health problems. Besides this, it also focuses on the evaluation of the factors that hinder the access of the appropriate treatment for children that suffers from mental health problems (Zwaanswijk, et al.2003). The researcher has done appropriate search and review of the previous studies in order to carry out the research in an appropriate manner. In addition to this, different populations rely on different factors such as attitudes and beliefs related to help seeking for the purpose of informing the decision to access support. The previous studies suggest that parents find obstacles to access professional help for their child due to presence of negative beliefs and attitudes. Parents also seek professional help in three stages which include recognition of the problem, requirement of professional help for the problem and overcoming the physical and attitudinal barriers to help seeking ((Hunt Eisenberg, 2010). This research study has focus on the Australian based sample of young children for the purpose of analyzing the behavior of parents to seek professional help for their children There is a selection of 442 children that are aged 6 years from the total of 733 infants from Australia by the use of longitudinal study methods. The selection is made from the infants in maternal and child health associations. Besides this, it also provide invitation to primary care givers to collect the information related to the research topic. Besides this, the researcher has obtained a consent from the parents for the purpose of collection of the information by the way of survey through questionnaire method. The use of survey through questionnaire method helps in collection of the information from wide population in a quick manner. It is less time consuming process. Child Behavior Checklist is an instrument used for the purpose of measuring the problems related to mental health in the children. The score on this instrument is above the standard or borderline then it is regarded the child is suffering from the problems related to mental health (Cauce, et al.2002). When asked by parents regarding consulting any professional help till the age of five, and the type of services availed. The responses are classified into four categories namely mental health services, general health services, informed help and no help sought. In addition to this, the recognition of the difficult child behavior by parents is measured by the use of Australian Temperament Projects global rating scale. The rating of more difficult than average signifies that there is a presence of mental health problems at the stage of infants. The mental health problems were described in terms of behavior problems to parents such as aggression, anxiety, compliance, and emotional distress. The researcher has also provided information related to the professionals to whom parents can seek help for their children those has mental problems included pediatricians, psychiatrists and child psychologists (Rickwood, et al.2005). In addition to this, pilot study is conducted for the purpose of finding the factors that affect or hinders parents to seek professional help for their children who suffered from mental health problems. In addition to this, the results of the pilot study is conducted is analyzed by the use of content analysis. In the pilot study, through a questionnaire, 15 parents with their young children has asked to provide information regarding different factors due to which they do not seek professional help for their children. From the pilot study responses five major barriers are included in the questionnaire. It is found that parents seek professional help for the mental health problem in their children if they observe any behavioral problem in their children. The researcher has used Likert 7 point scale for the purpose of collection of the information related to the factors that affects the intention of the parents to seek professional help ranging from very unlikely to very likely (Galdas, Cheater Marshall, 2005). In addition to this, responses are also collected on the five point scale that range from ambivalent to low intenders. In addition to this, there are also other factors that affect the intention of the parents to consider professional help which is regarded as family socio-demographic factors which include language spoken at home, family income, family living arrangements, marriage status, family income and so on. Besides this, the researcher has also assigned a SEIFA index of relative disadvantage score to each family by the way of home address postal code. By the use of statistical tools, a comparison is made between parents that have positive help seeking intentions with the parents that have low help seeking intentions if their child has a mental health problem (Zimmerman, 2005). In this research study, the researcher has used appropriate data collection methods such as observation and survey through questionnaire method (Eiraldi, et al.2006). Both these methods are regarded as primary data collection methods and results in the collection of the information at first hand from the respondents. Besides this, the collected data by the use of primary sources is being used for a specific purpose. It facilitates in gaining information related to the current scenario of the research problem. There is also a need for the recommendations provided for the purpose of reducing the occurrence of the mental health problems in children at early stages. Besides this, there is also a need of providing information for the direction to the future researchers on the research topic. Exploratory research design is being used by the researcher in this research study as it helps in exploring the different aspects of the research topic. Besides this, deductive research approach is be ing used in which the information is collected in general and appropriate deductions have been made in order to arrive at the specific information related to the research study. This research study is limited to Australia (Komiya, Good Sherrod, 2000). In addition to this, comparison is also made between the parents who have recognized that their child has more difficulties than their peers and the parents that recognized their child does not have any mental problem. Along with this, the comparison is also made among the parents that seek professional help and parents that do not seek professional help when their child has mental health problems. In order to compare, regression analysis have been conducted for the purpose of finding the relationship between the professional help and barriers that affect the intentions of the parents. It is found out that from the whole sample 86 6 year old children have mental health problems as per the CBCL Total problem scale. From these only one third parents have seek professional help for their children mental health problems. In addition to this, only few parents have seek professional help for their children that do not have mental problem due to behavior problems (Rickwood, Deane Wilson, 2 007). Only 14 children out of total sample that have mental problem seek the professional help for their children. The filters have been assigned include parents help seeking intentions. It is also found out that the children that are recognized as have a mental problem, parents have a positive intention towards seeking professional help at the age of 6 years. Only few of the respondents have considered as low help seekers for their child who have mental problems. The second filter is the recognition of the parents that they have a child with difficult behavior than average. It is estimated that only few of the parents have recognized that their child has a mental problem and there is a need to seek help from professionals (Gulliver, Griffiths Christensen, 2010). Less than one third of the parents have accessed professional help when their child is in need due to presence of mental health problems. Along with this, there is also an application of logistic regression model that provides information regarding the fact that the most significant predictor of children in need of the professional help is the recognition of their parents that there is a need to take professional help to provide cure to mental health problems faced by children. It is found that very few children have received professional help to cure their mental health problems. Only few parents accessed professional help from different professionals for their children that face mental health problems. References Badland, H. Schofield, G. (2005). Transport, urban design, and physical activity: an evidence based update. Transportation Research Part D 10 177-196. Carson, V., et al. (2010). Parents perception of neighborhood environment as a determinant of screen time, physical activity and active transport. Revue Canadienne De Sante Publique 101(2),124-127. Carver, A. et al. (2011). How is active transport associated with childrens and adolescents physical activity over time? International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8 (126). Cauce, A.M., et al. (2002). Cultural and Contextual influences in mental health help seeking: A focus on ethnic minority youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70(1), 44-55. Cooper, A.R. et al. (2003). Commuting to school: Are children who walk more physically active? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25/94), 273-276. Corti, B.G. Donovan, R.J.(2002). Socioeconomic status differences in recreational physical activity levels and real and perceived access to a supportive physical environment. Preventive Medicine 35, 601-611. Duncan, E.K., Duncan, S. Scholfield, G. (2008). Pedometer-determined physical activity and active transport in girls. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 5(2), 1-9. Duncan, S. et al. (2016). Active transport, physical activity and distance between home and school in children and adolescents. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 13, pp.447-453. Eiraldi, R.B., et al. (2006). Service utilization among ethnic minority children with ADHD: A model of help seeking behavior. Adm Policy Ment Health Ment Health Serv Res 33, 607-622. Galdas, P.M., Cheater, F. Marshall, P. 2005. Men and health help seeking behavior: literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing 49(6), 616-623. Grow, H.M. et al.(2008). Where are youth active?roles of proximity, active transport, and built environment. Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine, 2071-2079. Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K.M. Christensen, H. (2010). Perceived barriers and facilitators to mental health help seeking in young people: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry 10 (113). Hunt, J. Eisenberg, D. (2010). Mental health problems and help seeking behavior among college students. Journal of Adolescent Health 46 (1), 3-10. Komiya, N., Good, G.E. Sherrod, N.B. (2000). Emotional openness as a predictor of college students attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Journal of Counseling Psychology 47 (1), 138-143. Oh, E. Bayer, J. K. (2015). Parents help seeking processes for early childhood mental health problems. Child and Adolescent Mental Health 20(3), pp.149-154. Pate, R.R. et al. (2006). Promoting Physical Activity in Children and Youth: A leadership role for schools. AHA Scientific Statement,1214-1224. Rickwood, D. et al. (2005). Young peoples help seeking for mental health problems . Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health 4 (3), 3-34. Rickwood, D.J. , Deane, F.P. Wilson, C.J. (2007). When and how do young people seek professional help for mental health problems? The Medical Journal of Australia 187 (7), S35-S39. Rissel, C. et al. (2012). Physical Activity Associated with Public transport use-A review and Modeling of potential benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9(7). Sallis, J.F., et al. (2004). Active transport and physical activity: opportunities for collaboration on transportation and public health research. Transportation Research Part A 38, 249-268. Zimmerman, F.I. (2005). Social and economic determinants of disparities in professional help seeking for child mental health problems: evidence from a national sample. Health Services Research 40 (5), 1514-1533. Zwaanswijk, M. et al. (2003). Help seeking for emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry 12, 153-161.

The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Essay Example

The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception Paper Theories of perception tend to explain how the visual system operates in terms of two kinds of processes: bottom up, data driven ones, that are pre-attentive, and are a consequence of how the nervous system is structured and top down or concept driven processes which rely on experience, inference and expectations. Apart from the retina, the rest of the visual system has two way connections ( for example the interplay between the lateral geniculate nuclei and the visual cortex), and thus top down processing is an obvious implication of the manner in which the human anatomy is organised. Gestalt psychologists have described how we organise sensation to perceive separate objects: and have developed a number of rules for figure ground organisation. The basic laws of Gestalt are: proximity, similarity, closure, and good continuation. But physiological evidence for the internal existence of their laws (which they termed isomorphism and believed to be based on electrical fields in the brain) has not been found. Lashley et al (1951; cited in Eysenck, M. 1998) were unable to affect vision by disrupting the electrical fields in the cortex of monkeys. However, the grouping theories that they have described occur in perception even at short durations of less than 100 m/s, this suggests that they must be a bottom up process. We will write a custom essay sample on The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The role of bottom up and top down processes in visual perception specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Template theories suggest that copies of the objects are stored in the long term memory, which are matched against to produce pattern recognition. This theory is completely concept driven, and thus only those objects stored in memory can be seen and novel objects cannot be perceived at all. Since one object needs various templates to represent all the different shapes and sizes that result from viewing a 3D object, it requires an almost infinite numbers of templates to be stored, and accessed. Feature theorists solve the problem by breaking an image into basic features, which are compared with similar patterns in the memory. So called feature detectors, identified by Hubel and Weisel(1959, 1968) as single cortical cells, identify specific(simple) features in their receptive field such as curves, angles, or straight edges. Other complex cells respond to angles, or movement and process the information on a different level, each level adding another layer of sophistication to the visual stimulus. Typified by Selfridges pandemonium model, feature net models explain perception entirely in terms of data driven processes. They do not account for the complexity of a human environment, or explain the importance of context. Both approaches are unified in a bi-directional model of pattern recognition, such as that offered by Mcclelland, Rumelhart, and Hinton (1986; cited in Gleitman 1999). This system offers answers where there is ambiguity, and bi-directional inhibition of alternative detectors explains why priming effects result in faster reaction times. This model begins with a knowledge-driven hypothesis, which makes the visual system more sensitive to data from feature detectors. The important difference is that each level is capable of influencing any other level, in both directions, and thus the term parallel processing has be used. Thus when presented with the ambiguous dalmation figure figure, data driven processing alone is not able to organise the stimulus into a recognisable pattern, but after being told what to look for, the task is easily solved. A major achievement of our visual system is the creation of a three dimensional reality, from a flat retinal image. Depth cues describe how this is achieved. There is evidence to suggest that depth cues in simpler animals such as salamanders is innate (see Spery, 1943; cited in Coren et al, 1994). Visual cliff experiments show that depth cues are used by a wide range of very young animals (Walk and Gibson, 1961; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Binocular depth perception has been found in humans as young as four months( Granrud, 1986; cited in Coren et al 1994). However, depth perception is improved, as with dark reared kittens, through learning during sensitive periods in an animals development (see Tees, 1974; cited in Coren et al, 1994). Monocular or pictorial depth cues such as occlusion and familiar size offer information about relative distances in the world around us. Since these cues are learned they must be examples of top down processes. As evidence of this Turnbull (1961; cited in Chandler.) found that forest dwelling pygmies, unused to environments requiring long range depth perception, applied size constancy only over short distances. They interpreted a far off herd of buffalo as insects. Other learned cues are texture gradients, height in the plane, linear and aerial perspective Binocular depth cues are now believed to be physiological. These include accommodation, convergence, retinal size and stereopsis. Julesz (1959) illustrated that the visual system is able to reconstruct three dimensional perception from random dot stereograms , in the absence of any other depth cues. This occurs when the visual system is able to match and fuse the disparate images in each retina. In other words, stereopsis produces form and not the other way around. In support of this Bishop and Pettigrew (1986; cited in Coren et al, 1994) located disparity tuned detectors in the in the visual cortex of cats. Marr and Poggio (1976) solved the matching problem of how the visual system is able to match which element in each eyes view belong together, and how alternative fusional possibilities are eliminated. Evidence of neurons that respond to crossed (near) and uncrossed (far) disparities have been found in monkeys (Poggio and Fischer, 1997; cited in coren et al, 1994). Their computational theory illustrates the level of complexity that an automatic and bottom up process is capable of, and led the way for developments in object recognition. Their model of object recognition allows for a 3 dimensional representation that is independent of the observers viewpoint. Earlier models such as template matching theories were confounded by the enormous variation that any one object has in three dimensions. It is important to note that various depth cues may be used at once, and the effectiveness of a particular cue will be determined by its reliability in the past. Ittleson (1951; cited in Coren et al, 1994) presented participants with different sized playing cards in a dark room. Since all other depth cues were lacking the largest cards were perceived as being closer, thus illustrating how retinal size was interpreted in terms of past experience (familiar size). Our ability to combine depth cues then is learned. Biedermans Geon theory of object recognition (1987, 1990) is a development of computational theories. It reduces the information about the components of a visual object to 36 basic shapes or Geons, which are matched in the long term memory. The success of the theory relies on the understanding of non-accidental properties, those aspects of a perception that do not change as we look at an object from a different angles (for example symmetry, parallel lines, curvature). Biedermans theory explains object recognition as consisting of various processes. Thus patients with visual agnosia are able to recognise each separate aspect of an object: a brush made of handle and bristles, but are incapable of organising the features into a recognisable whole. However, the theory relies on bottom up processes and does not explain the importance of context in object recognition. This was illustrated by Bruner et al (1951; cited in Eysenck, M. 1998) who found that hypotheses or expectations (top down processes) might influence perception of colour. Thus playing cards of irregular colours, such as black hearts, were reported as brown or purple. The implication is that bottom up processing is used in optimal viewing conditions, and supplemented by top down processes, in less than optimal viewing conditions. Gregory (1970, 1980) a constructivist, used the Muller-Lyer illusion to illustrate how context might be applied to perception, in this case in terms of misapplied size constancy. He suggests that the line that appears as longer reminds us of the inside corner of a room, thus we interpret it as further away than the other figure. Since the retinal images are the same size, the visual system mistakenly infers that the line on the right must be bigger. Experiments reported in 1966 by Segall, Campbell and Herskovitz (cited in Chandler) suggested that the Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ller-Lyer illusion may be absent or reduced amongst people who grow up in right-angle free environments. This would indeed be evidence for knowledge driven influence on perception. However, Gross (1992; cited in Eysenck,M. 1998) found the same illusory effect when the arrows were replaced with other shapes, that could not represent the 3D corners. Helmholtz, and later Gregory (1978) and Rock (1983) exemplify the Intelligent Perception approach. In their view, visual perception of space goes beyond the image itself to include previous experience and habitual cognitive processing strategies. The main problem with the constructivist approach is that many of the top down effects described are produced in a lab, under brief exposure in conditions removed from everyday life. As Tulving et al (1964; cited in Gleitman, 1999) found, top down processing is important under ambiguous circumstances, such as brief exposure of a stimulus, where bottom up processes are reduced in effectiveness. But we would expect that perception would be inaccurate much more of the time, if expectation plays such an important role. This just isnt the case in everyday life. Gibsons direct perception approach is a bottom up ecological theory, which suggests that automatic higher-order patterns between such elements as size, shape and distance remain the same as we move around, and are used to produce a coherent view of the world. They explain the phenomena of size and shape constancy. Thus, although the size of the retinal image may change as we move closer to the visual stimulus, other relationships between visual elements are invariant. However,Size constancy can be found even when other relationships between object and background such as texture cues are absent from the visual scene. Also, as distance cues are reduced, size constancy is also reduced, (see Holway and Boring, 1947; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Favouring one process over another in perception, as reflected in the opposition between constructivist and direct perception theories is too limiting to explain all of the evidence. Innate components exist and are important, but to achieve high levels of visual functioning, these components must mature, and experience allows this to happen. Both processes may occur together, or in sequence, but both must occur. The idea that perception is immediate and begins with primitive features has been investigated in the work of Treisman through Feature Integration Theory. She suggests that primitive features do not have to be analysed or located, they jump in to perception effortlessly. Measuring response times in visual search tasks, differences in shape, colour, orientation and direction of movement embedded in a display, are perceived very quickly. Thus a single letter O embedded in a display of many Vs can be perceived as fast as a single O between only two Vs. This indicates that the visual system doesnt have to inspect every detail to determine whether it has relevant properties and implies that this process is pre-attentive. However, perception of a collection of features is not as immediate, and when presented with features such as a colour and a letter simultaneously for 200 m/s, certain illusory conjunctions were apparent: letters were identified, but their colours were often confused or swapped (see Treismann and Gelade, 1980; cited in Gleitman, 1999). Thus indicating that coordinating several features in a stimulus requires a discrete step that occurs after that of feature identification. This stage requires active focal attention. Importantly, the process is independent of the stimulus, and involves selecting a locus in space, and integrating the features there into a perceptual object. Feature integration is less prone to error when we know which objects to expect. This aspect of the process involves attention, which is an important conceptually driven aspect of perception.